卡拉胶
卡拉胶( 或 ;/ˌkærəˈɡiːnənz/ karr-ə-gee-nənz,CAS 9000-07-1),又称鹿角菜胶、角叉菜胶、爱尔兰苔菜胶,是一組从海洋可食用红藻(包括角叉菜属、麒麟菜属、杉藻属及沙菜属等)中提取的綫性硫酸化多糖的统称。這些多糖體由於能夠與食物中的蛋白質穩定結合,所以被廣泛應用於食品产业,例如:作为凝固剂、增稠剂或稳定剂,用於奶類及肉類產品。
卡拉胶的名字来源于爱尔兰苔菜(Chondrus crispus,也称角叉菜)在愛爾蘭語的称呼,原來的意思是指「小石塊」。這種植物作為食品添加劑使用早於15世紀已經開始[1]。卡拉膠是素食主義 及維根主義支持者對明膠使用的另類選擇,因為在甜品中經常使用的明膠是動物製品。
性质
卡拉胶是一種无臭、无味的大型(分子量在10万道尔顿以上)的高度彈性分子,相互卷曲在一起形成双螺旋结构。卡拉胶具有亲水性、粘性、稳定性,溶于80摄氏度热水形成粘性透明液体,并能在室温下形成不同形式的凝胶。這使食品工業及其他產業亦廣泛使用卡拉胶作增稠劑及稳定剂。
All carrageenans are high-molecular-weight polysaccharides made up of repeating galactose units and 3,6 anhydrogalactose (3,6-AG), both sulfated and nonsulfated. The units are joined by alternating α-1,3 and β-1,4 糖苷键。
类型
商業應用的卡拉胶以下列三个类型為主:
應用
食物及其他家居用途
下面是卡拉胶应用的一些例子:
- 软糖、甜品、冰淇淋、淡奶油、奶昔、乳酪、调味酱、沙拉醬及煉奶等:作为增加粘性的凝胶剂,代替琼脂;
- 醬汁:以增加其黏稠度;
- 啤酒:作为清除絮蛋白質的澄清剂;
- 肉酱和肉制品:替代脂肪来增加持水性和体积的持水剂;
- 牙膏:防止成分分离的稳定剂;
- Fruit Gushers: ingredient in the encapsulated gel
- 消防泡沫:产生泡沫的增稠剂;
- 洗髮精和化妆乳膏:增稠剂;
- 空气清新剂:胶凝剂;
- Marbling: the ancient art of paper and fabric marbling uses a carrageenan mixture on which to float paints or inks; the paper or fabric is then laid on it, absorbing the colours
- 鞋油:作为增加黏度的胶凝剂;
- 生物工艺学:固定细胞及酶的凝胶;
- Pharmaceuticals: used as an inactive 賦形劑 in pills and tablets
- 豆浆及植物奶:增稠劑;
- Diet sodas: to enhance texture and suspend flavours
- 寵物食品
- 人体润滑剂
- Vegetarian hot dogs
Regulatory status
In the U.S., carrageenan is allowed under FDA regulations[3] as a direct food additive and is considered 公认安全[4] when used in the amount necessary as an emulsifier, stabilizer, or thickener in foods, except those standardized foods that do not provide for such use. FDA also reviewed carrageenan safety for infant formula.[5] The European Food Safety Authority concluded "there is no evidence of any adverse effects in humans from exposure to food-grade carrageenan, or that exposure to degraded carrageenan from use of food-grade carrageenan is occurring",[6] Furthermore, the Joint FAO/WHO expert committee on food additives stated in a July 2014 review of carrageenan "that the use of carrageenan in infant formula or formula for special medical purposes at concentrations up to 1000 mg/L is not of concern".[7]
Although the National Organic Program (NOP) had added carrageenan to its National List of additives allowed to be included in organic foods in 2003,[8] and reviewed and reauthorized it in 2008,[9] noting it as "critical to organic production and handling operations",[10] on November 18, 2016 the NOP's National Organic Standards Board (NOSB) voted to recommend carrageenan be removed from the National List of additives allowed in organic food production.[11]
On April 4, 2018 the Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS) (美国农业部) published a document to announce the renewal of carrageenan on the National List, allowing its continued use in food products. The document states, “The NOSB recommended removing carrageenan because they determined that alternative materials, such as gellan gum, guar gum, or xanthan gum, are available for use in organic products” continuing, “AMS found sufficient evidence in public comments to the NOSB that carrageenan continues to be necessary for handling agricultural products because of the unavailability of wholly natural substitutes (§ 6517(c)(1)(ii)). Carrageenan has specific uses in an array of agricultural products, and public comments reported that potential substitutes do not adequately replicate the functions of carrageenan across the broad scope of use. Therefore, carrageenan continues to meet the OFPA criteria for inclusion on the National List.” [12] The rule went into effect May 29, 2018.
In the most recent review by an independent panel, the Joint Expert Committee of the 联合国粮食及农业组织 of the 联合国 and 世界卫生组织 on Food Additives released a technical report in 2015 on the use of carrageenan in 配方奶粉 and found that the additive was ‘not of concern’ in infant formula as food for special medical purposes at concentrations up to 1000 千克s per 公升.[13] The use of carrageenan in infant formula, organic or otherwise, is prohibited in the EU for precautionary reasons, but is permitted in other food items.[14]
In the UK, the Food Standards Agency issued a product recall for sweets containing carrageenan, stating that carrageenan “is not permitted as an ingredient in jelly confectionery products as it presents a choking hazard”.[15]
Toxicity research
Degraded carrageenan (poligeenan) has been found to cause inflammation of the gut, altering microbiota, and was found to be a triggering factor of inflammatory bowel diseases such as ulcerative colitis and Crohn Disease.[16][17][18]
Food-grade carrageenan has been confused with poligeenan, although they are completely different products, creating a controversy over the food-additive's safety. Food-grade carrageenan's safety has been proven through various studies.[19][20]
參考文獻
- . Fao.org. 1965-01-01 [2011-12-10] (英语).
- McHugh, Dennis J. . www.fao.org. Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations. 2003 [2017-07-29]. (原始内容存档于2017-08-06) (英语).
- 21 Code of Federal Regulations 172.620
- Generally Recognized As Safe 21 CRF §182.7255 GRAS ID Code 9000-07-1 (1973)
- Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act 21 U.S.C. 350(a) §412
- Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food on Carrageenan (2003) p. 5
- Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives. Who.int. Retrieved on 2014-8-11.
- 68 FR 61993 (2003)
- 65 FR 80548
- 73 FR 59481
- (PDF). USDA Agricultural Marketing Service. 2016-11-30 [2017-02-15].
- . USDA Agricultural Marketing Service. 2018-04-04 [2018-04-21].
- . Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives, WHO Food Additive Series: 70. 2015. ISBN 9789241660709. hdl:10665/171781.
- (PDF). European Commission, Scientific Committee on Food. 2003.
- .
- Martino, John Vincent; Van Limbergen, Johan; Cahill, Leah E. . Frontiers in Pediatrics. 1 May 2017, 5: 96. PMC 5410598. PMID 28507982. doi:10.3389/fped.2017.00096.
- Shang, Qingsen; Sun, Weixia; Shan, Xindi; Jiang, Hao; Cai, Chao; Hao, Jiejie; Li, Guoyun; Yu, Guangli. . Toxicology Letters. September 2017, 279: 87–95. PMID 28778519. doi:10.1016/j.toxlet.2017.07.904.
- Moyana, TN; Lalonde, JM. . Annals of Clinical and Laboratory Science. 1990, 20 (6): 420–6. PMID 2073092.
- McKim JM. 2014. “Food additive carrageenan: Part I: A critical review of carrageenan in vitro studies, potential pitfalls, and implications for human health and safety
- Weiner ML. 2014. “Food additive carrageenan: Part II: A critical review of carrageenan in vivo safety studies.
- Eccles R, Meier C, Jawad M, Weinmüllner R, Grassauer A, Prieschl-Grassauer E. . Respiratory Research. 2010, 11: 108. PMC 2923116. PMID 20696083. doi:10.1186/1465-9921-11-108.
- Turville, Stuart G.; Aravantinou, Meropi; Miller, Todd; Kenney, Jessica; Teitelbaum, Aaron; Hu, Lieyu; Chudolij, Anne; Zydowsky, Tom M.; 等. Kewalramani, Vineet N. , 编. . PLoS ONE. 2008, 3 (9): e3162. PMC 2525816. PMID 18776937. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0003162.
- Yiu H. Hui. . CRC Press. 2006: 528– [10 December 2011]. ISBN 978-1-57444-552-7.
- Borthakur, A. . AJP: Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology. 2006, 292: G829–G838. PMID 17095757. doi:10.1152/ajpgi.00380.2006.
- Aguilar-Veiga, E; Sierra-Paredes, G; Galán-Valiente, J; Soto-Otero, R; Méndez-Alvarez, E; Sierra-Marcuño, G. . Research communications in chemical pathology and pharmacology. 1991, 71 (3): 351–64. PMID 2047576.
- Rumjanek, VM; Watson, SR; Sljivić, VS. . Immunology. 1977, 33 (3): 423–432. PMC 1445637. PMID 332622.
- Fidler, IJ; Barnes, Z; Fogler, WE; Kirsh, R; Bugelski, P; Poste, G. . Cancer Research. 1982, 42 (2): 496–501. PMID 7055801.
延伸閱讀
- McHugh, Dennis J. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 288 - Production and Utilization of Products from Commercial Seaweeds, Chapter 3 - Production, Properties and Uses of Carrageenan, 联合国粮食及农业组织, Rome, 1987
- Guiry, Michael D.R. Carrageenans, The Seaweed Site: information on marine algae.